What are different types of (scientific) research?

Research, generally, has a specific goal. Scientists choose from different types of research available to fulfill their goals. A good starting point for understanding the various ways one could go about doing research is to get an understanding of research methods. Research methods includes all the methods and techniques a researcher uses to conduct scientific research . It includes designing the research, making decisions about the way the data will be collected, and analyzing the data. The researcher also needs to know the logic behind the selection of particular methods for their research. The logic justifies the choice of methods. So,

Research Methodology = Research methods + Logic for selection

Let’s also talk about scientific research. Scientific research can be described as systematic inquiry aimed at accurately describing and explaining a phenomenon of interest. Phenomenon of interest is an object of perception that is still not understood, not fully appreciated or explained. In other words, scientific research involves the steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our knowledge about a topic or issue. Scientific research aims for the generalizability of its results to a large population. Since there are many phenomena of interest there are many types of research.

Types of research

Primary vs Secondary research

In Primary Research, researchers engage in first-hand collection of data to answer a new research question or to produce new knowledge. In secondary research, also called archival research, researchers use existing resources/data to gain new insights. The Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR), which is located at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, MI is a great source of archived data.

Quantitative vs Qualitative research

Quantitative research is used to study problems that explain variables of interest (the concept that we are studying or measuring). The researcher decides what to study; asks specific, narrow questions; and collects quantifiable data (data that can be measured and counted) generally using large, random samples collected using reliable and valid tools and methods. Data analyzed using statistical techniques, focusing on deductive and logical reasoning in an unbiased and objective manner. Examples of some quantitative research methods are experimental research (true-experimental research and quasi-experimental research), correlational research, causal-comparative research, and survey research.

Qualitative research is used to explore phenomena. It relies on the views of participants; asks broad, general questions; and collects data characterized by their descriptive qualities (consisting largely of words or text) from a smaller set of participants through personal accounts and interviews. Qualitative researchers analyze the text for patterns or themes, and conduct the inquiry subjectively and reflexively. They usually present the data in a narrative form, using inductive reasoning. Examples of some qualitative research methods are ethnography, grounded theory, case study, phenomenological study, and narrative research.

Key characteristics of Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research — Key Characteristics of different Research

Applied vs Basic research

Applied research is used to examine a specific set of circumstances. Its seeks to relate the results or findings of the research to a particular situation. The purpose of applied research is to increase what is known about a problem through empirical observations in order to create a better solution than is currently available. Applied research is used widely in city planning and public policy research. Applied research can use only quantitative, only qualitative, or mixed-method research designs. Examples of questions that can be studied through applied research are: How can we abolish hate crimes? How can bullying in schools be prevented? What is causing increased poverty? How can it be addressed? Is genetically modified food hurting our health?

In contrast, basic research is “research for the sake of knowledge”. Basic research is also called “pure” science, which is grounded in the scientific method and is not expected to have any immediate practical application. The primary purpose of basic research is to expand on what is known —build knowledge — with little significant connection to contemporary problems. Examples of questions that can be studied through basic research are: How does the human body respond to chronic stress? How do children acquire language skills? How does memory work? How do people make important decisions? In general, applied and basic research differ in terms of the purpose, context, validity, and design of the research.

Descriptive vs Causal research

Descriptive research focuses on describing some phenomenon, event, situation, or a group of people. How is overcrowding in cities related to crime? This question is an example of descriptive research. The goal of descriptive research is to paint an accurate picture of the way the world is. Descriptive research includes describing: (1) just one variable — such as the rate of autism in the population; (2) the prevalence of a phenomenon (for example, prevalence of homelessness in Washington, DC); (3) relationships between two or more variables —that is, how two different variables are related. It is the first step to understand a problem when there is no knowledge of it. Descriptive research is generally exploratory in nature, which means that it is undertaken when very little is known about a phenomenon.

Causal research is sometimes also known as explanatory research or experimental research. It examines the effect of one variable on another. That is, does a change in one variable produce change in another? And, if it does, by how much does it change? Causal research is generally used to test the cause-and-effect relationships between the variables of interest. When we have theories that posit the direction (negative or positive) between the variables and the temporal order (cause comes before the effect in time), we use causal research. For example, what would happen to the severity of the disease if children with autism stopped eating gluten? Would it change at all? If so, by how much? Or what would happen to autism rates if children stopped getting vaccinated? Experimental research (true experiments and quasi-experiments) and longitudinal research (panel design) provide an opportunity to test the temporal ordering between variables, the direction of the influence (positive or negative correlation), and the strengths of influence (magnitude or severity of effect – the value of the correlation). Causal research generally is done when you have already done descriptive or exploratory research or when the relationship between variables is known.

Deductive vs Inductive Research

Deductive and inductive reasoning fall under the umbrella of Philosophy of Logic.

Deductive research or the deductive method of scientific reasoning has been the most common method of reasoning in the natural sciences for more than 150 years. Sometimes it is also called the hypothetico-deductive method. Aristotle defined it as going from the general to the specific. The researcher first formulates a theory or set of theories which lead to the formation of (hypotheses that are then tested against the data for their predictive success. It is the process of moving from a general theory to a specific set of conclusions. Experimental research and longitudinal panel design are examples of deductive research.

A great example of deductive reasoning is the big bang theory in cosmology. Scientists predicted, in theory, that if the universe is expanding, it have been must be smaller at some point in time. Since the universe has an enormous amount of energy there had to be an explosion that started the process of expansion. It was not until 1964 when scientists discovered the cosmic background radiation resulting from the big bang. The discipline of physics, for that matter, primarily relies on hypothetico-deductive reasoning as theory development moves much faster than the ability to observe the vast and rare events.

Inductive research or the inductive method of scientific reasoning is when systematic observations lead to the development of theories. It is the process of moving from specific observations to a more general theory that can explain a phenomenon of interest. In this type of research, researchers first make observations or collect facts, look for patterns, commonalities, or themes in the observations (upward hypothesis) and then develop a theory that can explain the phenomenon observed. Induction was a dominant scientific method used from the late seventeenth century to about the middle of the nineteenth century (Proctor & Capaldi, 2001). It is still used in science, particularly in the social sciences.

An great example of inductive research or inductive reasoning is the theory of evolution. Darwin first made specific observations about how animals have adapted to the changing environment, looked for a pattern (e.g., survival of the fittest), and then created a theory that explained evolution.

Bibliography

Christensen, L. B., Johnson, B., & Turner, L. A. (2020). Research methods, design, and analysis (Thirteenth edition. ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Dooley, D. (2001). Social research methods (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pretence Hall.

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L.-A. B. (2012). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Australia ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Proctor, R. W., & Capaldi, E. J. (2001). Improving the science education of psychology students: Better teaching of methodology. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 173–181.

Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications.